Global ocean spatial suitability for macroalgae offshore cultivation and sinking

Macroalgae offshore cultivation and sinking is considered a potentially practical approach for ocean-based carbon dioxide removal. However, several considerations need to be resolved to assess the effectiveness and sustainability of this approach. Currently, several studies focus on the area required for climate-relevant carbon sequestration through macroalgae cultivation and sinking without considering realistic, global spatial limitations. This study uses a spatially-explicit suitability assessment model for optimised open-ocean afforestation and sinking site designation. By applying specific maritime, ecological and industrial constraints, two maps are produced: a) suitable areas for macroalgae offshore cultivation and sinking, and b) suitable areas for macroalgae sinking only (for sequestration purposes). These data provide a more realistic approach to quantifying the ocean surface (including the corresponding depths) required for macroalgae offshore cultivation and sinking within a spatially sustainable framework. The resulting maps estimate the respective suitability areas within the EEZs of the world countries. A total area suitable for macroalgae offshore cultivation and sinking is calculated at 10.8M km2, whereas sinking-only areas account for 32.8M km2 of the offshore ocean. The implications of spatial suitability patterns at global and national levels are discussed. We suggest that the concept of ‘grow nearshore, sink offshore’ should be explored as an alternative to offshore cultivation

In vivo estimation of pigment composition and optical absorption cross-sectionby spectroradiometry in four aquatic photosynthetic micro-organisms

International audienceThe objective of the present study was to estimate in vivo pigment composition and to retrieve absorption cross-section values, a∗, of photosynthetic micro-organisms using a non-invasive technique of reflectance spectrometry. To test the methodology, organisms from different taxonomical groups and different pigment composition were used (Spirulina platensis a Cyanophyta, Porphyridium cruentum a Rhodophyta, Dunaliella tertiolecta a Chlorophyta and Entomoneis paludosa a Bacillariophyta) and photoacclimated to two different irradiance levels: 25 μmol photon m−2 s−1 (Low Light, LL) and 500 μmol photon m−2 s−1 (High Light, HL). Second derivative spectra from reflectance were used to identify pigment in vivo absorption bands that were linked to specific pigments detected by high performance liquid chromatography. Whereas some absorption bands such as those induced by Chlorophyll (Chl) a (416, 440, 625 and around 675 nm) were ubiquous, others were taxonomically specific (e.g. 636 nm for Chl c in E. paludosa) and/or photo-physiological dependent (e.g. 489 nm for zeaxanthin in the HL-acclimated S. platensis). The optical absorption cross-section, a∗, was retrieved from reflectance data using a radiative transfer model previously developed for microphytobenthos. Despite the cellular Chl a decrease observed from LL to HL (up to 88% for S. platensis), the a∗ increased, except for P. cruentum. This was attributed to a ‘package effect’ and to a greater absorption by photoprotective carotenoids that did not contribute to the energy transfer to the core Chl a

Oyster farming and externalities: a bioeconomic approach

The management of the French shellfish industry has been based for a century and a half on a Territorial Use Right in Fisheries (TURF) scheme. This was meant to ensure control over access and use and was seen as a potential remedy for overexploitation. But the resource, i.e. shellfish nutrients, is mobile and carried by streams. As a consequence, space allocation is far from being an efficient tool to share the resource between producers. The history of the French shellfish industry is marked by a series of overfishing crises occurring in most of the open-access shellfish beds located all along the French coastline. When the concession system was enforced (1852), it was designed to cope with congestion and overfishing issues more than with the development of shellfish culture. After turning into a breeding activity in the late nineteenth century, the oyster industry kept suffering major crises such as massive diseases. Their occurrence can be analysed in terms of overexploitation resulting from technological externalities. This article presents the current progress in the bioeconomic modelling of the oystergrowing industry in the Bay of Bourgneuf (Pays de la Loire). In this bay, 400 firms, mostly family-sized, are being conceded 1,000 ha and sell about 1,0000 tons of Crassostrea gigas oysters a year. The model will highlight the externalities that result from the concession system and provide a basis for discussing policy measures

Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) growth modelling and indicators for offshore aquaculture in Europe under climate change uncertainty

Aquaculture development in Europe, while critical to the European Union (EU) Blue Growth strategy, has stagnated over the past decades due largely to high competition for space in the nearshore coastal zone among potential uses and the lack of clear priorities, policy, and planning at EU and national scales. Broad Marine Spatial Planning, including the designation of Allocated Zones for Aquaculture, requires spatial data at the corresponding broad spatial scale, which has not been readily available, as well as model projections to assess potential impacts of climate change. Here, daily chlorophyll-a, water temperature, salinity, and current speed outputs from a marine ecosystem model encompassing the coastal North East Atlantic, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea (the pan-European POLCOMS-ERSEM model configuration) are used to drive a Dynamic Energy Budget growth model of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Areas broadly suitable for growth were identified using threshold tolerance range masking applied using the model variables mentioned above, as well as bathymetry data. Oyster growth time series were transformed into simplified indicators that are meaningful to the industry (e.g., time to market weight) and mapped. In addition to early-century indicator maps, modelling and mapping were also carried out for two contrasting late-century climate change projections, following representative concentration pathways 4.5 and 8.5. Areas found to have good oyster growth potential now and into the future were further assessed in terms of their climate robustness (i.e., where oyster growth predictions are comparable between different future climate scenarios). Several areas within Europe were highlighted as priority areas for the development of offshore Pacific oyster cultivation, including coastal waters along the French Atlantic, the southern North Sea, and western Scotland and Ireland. A large potential growth hot spot was also identified along northwestern Africa, associated with a cool, productive upwelling coastal zone. The framework proposed here offers a flexible approach to include a large range of ecological input data, climate and ecosystem model scenarios, aquaculture-related models, species of interest, indicator types, and tolerance thresholds. Such information is suggested to be included in more extensive spatial assessments and planning, along with further socioeconomic and environmental data

Sentinel-2 remote sensing of Zostera noltei-dominated intertidal seagrass meadows

Accurate habitat mapping methods are urgently required for the monitoring, conservation, and management of blue carbon ecosystems and their associated services. This study focuses on exposed intertidal seagrass meadows, which play a major role in the functioning of nearshore ecosystems. Using Sentinel-2 (S2) data, we demonstrate that satellite remote sensing can be used to map seagrass percent cover (SPC) and leaf biomass (SB), and to characterize its seasonal dynamics. In situ radiometric and biological data were acquired from three intertidal meadows of Zostera noltei along the European Atlantic coast in the summers of 2018 and 2019. This information allowed algorithms to estimate SPC and SB from a vegetation index to be developed and assessed. Importantly, a single SPC algorithm could consistently be used to study Z. noltei-dominated meadows at several sites along the European Atlantic coast. To analyze the seagrass seasonal cycle and to select images corresponding to its maximal development, a two-year S2 dataset was acquired for a French study site in Bourgneuf Bay. The po-tential of S2 to characterize the Z. noltei seasonal cycle was demonstrated for exposed intertidal meadows. The SPC map that best represented seagrass growth annual maximum was validated using in situ measurements, resulting in a root mean square difference of 14%. The SPC and SB maps displayed a patchy distribution, influenced by emersion time, mudflat topology, and seagrass growth pattern. The ability of S2 to measure the surface area of different classes of seagrass cover was investigated, and surface metrics based on seagrass areas with SPC >= 50% and SPC >= 80% were computed to estimate the interannual variation in the areal extent of the meadow. Due to the high spatial resolution (pixel size of 10 m), frequent revisit time (<= 5 days), and long-term objective of the S2 mission, S2-derived seagrass time-series are expected to contribute to current coastal ecosystem management, such as the European Water Framework Directive, but to also guide future adaptation plans to face global change in coastal areas. Finally, recommendations for future intertidal seagrass studies are proposed

Biological, socio-economic, and administrative opportunities and challenges to moving aquaculture offshore for small French oyster-farming companies

Oyster production has historically taken place in intertidal zones, and shellfish farms already occupy large extents of the French intertidal space. The expansion of French shellfish aquaculture within intertidal areas is therefore spatially limited, and moving production to the subtidal offshore environment is considered to be a possible solution to this problem. Finding new sites along the French Atlantic coast was studied here from the perspective of small oyster companies run by young farmers, who are interested in offshore bivalve aquaculture expansion compatible with their investment capacity. In assessing the feasibility of such offshore production, we considered three main issues: (1) bivalve growth potential and (2) technical feasibility and conflicting uses, both within a spatial framework, as well as (3) the steps and barriers of the administrative licensing process. Oyster spat in an experimental offshore cage showed significantly faster growth, in terms of both weight and length, compared to those in an intertidal cage, mainly due to lower turbidity and full-time feeding capacity (i.e., constant immersion in the water). A combination of Earth Observation data and bivalve ecophysiological modelling was then used to obtain spatial distribution maps of growth potential, which confirmed that offshore sites have better potential for oyster growth than the traditionally oyster-farmed intertidal sites overall, but that this is highly spatially variable. Small-scale producers indicated two technical factors constraining where farms could be located: bathymetry must be between 5 and 20 m and the distance from a harbor no more than five nautical miles. These were included along with maps of various environmental and socio-economic constraints in a Spatial Multi-Criteria Evaluation (SMCE). Touristic traffic and bottom trawling by fisherman were found to be the two other most restrictive variables. The GIS-based SMCE developed in this study showed that there is almost 400 km2 of highly- to very highly-suitable area within which to develop offshore aquaculture using simple, low-cost bottom-cage techniques, and can be used to assist the shellfish industry in the Marine Spatial Planning decision-making process, still in progress in this coastal area. However, the complexity of the administrative processes necessary to obtain an offshore license is perceived as a stronger barrier by farmers owning small companies than site selection, technical feasibility, and required investments, and will be crucial to address in order to realistically proceed to offshore cultivation. The process demonstrated here, and the results are relevant to other coastal and offshore locations throughout the world and can be adapted for other species

Satellite-assisted monitoring of water quality to support the implementation of the Water Framework Directive

The EU Water Framework Directive1 (WFD) is an ambitious legislation framework to achieve good ecological and chemical status for all surface waters and good quantitative and chemical status for groundwater by 2027. A total of 111,062 surface waterbodies are presently reported on under the Directive, 46% of which are actively monitored for ecological status. Of these waterbodies 80% are rivers, 16% are lakes, and 4% are coastal and transitional waters. In the last assessment, 4% (4,442) of waterbodies still had unknown ecological status, while in 23% monitoring did not include in situ water sampling to support ecological status assessment2. For individual (mainly biological) assessment criteria the proportion of waterbodies without observation data is much larger; the full scope of monitoring under the WFD is therefore still far from being realised. At the same time, 60% of surface waters did not achieve ‘good’ status in the second river basin management plan and waterbodies in Europe are considered to be at high risk of having poor water quality based on combined microbial, physical and physicochemical indicators3

Seasonality of microphytobenthos revealed by remote-sensing in a south european estuary

The spatio-temporal variation of microphytobenthos (MPB) at the scale of a large estuary (Tagus estuary, Portugal) was studied using a combination of field and satellite remot esensing data during 2003.This is the first attempt to use remote sensing to study MPB in an ecosystem with a Mediterranean -like climate. Satellite pour l'Observation de la Terre(SPOT) and Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer(MERIS) images were used to map benthic microalgae through the application of a Normalized Difference Vegetation index (NDVI).A significant relationship between in-situ benthic chlorophyll a measurements and SPOT NDVI values was used to derive a map for biomass spatial distribution. At the scale of the whole intertidal area, NDVI time-series from 2003 revealed that MPB showed clear temporal variations,with lower values observed in summercompared to winter.This seasonal trend was found both in the SPOT and MERIS images and maybe the result of extreme high temperatures that inhibit MPB growth.Thema in MPB biofilms were spatially stable through time at a large scale.Maximum NDVI values during the winter were found in the high shore with decreasing NDVI values towards the low shore. MPB light limitation at the lowest bathymetries is likely to occur in winter due to the high turbidity of Tagus estuary. The biomass spatial distribution map,obtained for January 2003,indicated low values ranging from 0 to 20 mg Chl am-2 for the lower shores, while in the upper shore biomass varied between 60 and 80 mg Chl am-2. This study suggests striking differences in MPB seasonal patterns between the northern and southern European estuaries and stresses the need for ecophysiological approaches to investigate the role of thermo-andphoto-inhibition as structuring factors for MPB biomass distribution

Modélisation de l'écophysiologie de l'huître

Un modèle écophysiologique déterministe de la croissance, de la reproduction et des interactions entre le bivalve et son environnement estuarien a été élaboré pour l'huître japonaise Crassostrea gigas. Pour fonctionner, le modèle a besoin de la température de l'eau, des concentrations en matière en suspension, matière organique particulaire, matière minérale particulaire, chlorophylle-a, phéopigments, protéines, lipides et glucides particulaires. Les fonctions de filtration, consommation, ingestion, absorption et respiration ainsi que les efficacités de rétention, sélection et absorption sont modélisées à l'aide de variables endogènes (poids sec de l'animal, allocation d'énergie entre la croissance et la reproduction) et exogènes (température, quantité et qualité de la nourriture). Le modèle simule l'évolution temporelle de deux compartiments : somatique et réserves-gonades. L'énergie provenant de la nourriture absorbée est allouée au compartiment somatique jusqu'à un maximum de croissance somatique. Ce maximum décroît avec l'âge du bivalve et ne dépasse jamais 0,02 g.j−1.individu−1. L'énergie en excès est alors attribuée au compartiment réserves-gonades. Cette représentation permet d'identifier les périodes de stockage de réserves et de gamétogénèse ainsi qu'une bonne simulation de l'intensité des pontes. Le modèle tient compte d'une efficacité de sélection plus importante pour les microphytes que pour les particules détritiques. L'efficacité d'absorption a été représentée en fonction du pourcentage de matière organique dans la fraction ingérée afin de tenir compte de la dilution de la nourriture par les particules minérales. L'efficacité d'absorption des microalgues varie de 20 à 60 %, tandis que pour les particules organiques détritiques, le modèle simule des valeurs négatives pour tenir compte des pertes fécales métaboliques. Ces formulations permettent de suivre l'évolution temporelle des quantités de microphytes et de matières détritiques rejetées sous la forme de pseudofèces et de fèces

Temporal changes in community structure of tide pools following the “

The impact of the “Erika” oil spill on the tidal rock pool community, and particularly on two species of sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus and Psammechinus miliaris), was investigated over a 3-year period, at Piriac-sur-Mer (Department of Loire-Atlantique, France, 47°21.6' N; 2°31.7' W). A dramatic increase in the abundance of two macroalgae Ulva sp. and Grateloupia doryphora occurred following a 100% mortality of sea urchins observed three weeks after the oil spill. The density of sea urchins and of other main herbivores, the periwinkle Littorina littorea and the trochid mollusks Gibbula umbilicalis and Gibbula pennantii, were monitored between January 2000 and March 2003. There was significant inverse relationship between the overall density of herbivores (sea urchins, periwinkles and trochid mollusks) and the percent cover of algae in the tidal pools. The first urchins in the tidal pools were observed two years after the oil spill and it took three years to reach sea urchin densities comparable to the reference value of 63 ind.m−2 obtained before the oil spill